Methods for labeling urine in a subject with fluorophores

ABSTRACT

A method for labeling urine in a subject using fluorophores is provided that allows for determining if a urine sample originates from the subject that accepted the administered fluorophore. The method comprises detection of the fluorophore in the urine sample with optical means. One suitable fluorophore is fluorescein sodium. The method may be suitable for ensuring that urine samples for drug, illicit substance or other substance tests are genuine.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods for labeling urine in a subject withfluorophores that allows for determining if a urine sample originatesfrom the subject that accepted the administered fluorophore.

BACKGROUND

In the United States, it is estimated that 120 million urine screeningtests are performed annually to detect recent substance use.¹ The use ofthis method became particularly widespread in 1988, when the U.S.government introduced the first Mandatory Guidelines for FederalWorkplace Drug Testing Programs.² Currently, urine testing is used in avariety of context including substance use disorder treatment, researchsettings, the workplace, schools, in emergency medicine, and in thecriminal justice system.³ Urine testing remains the dominant method inuse, since the sample can be acquired relatively easily, the analysis isaffordable, and the technique has been used for many years resulting ina well-studied procedure with clear cut-offs and guidelines.⁴

Given the consequences of a positive urine test, it is not surprisingthat several methods of tampering with urine samples have been devised.W. H. Jaffe et al. classified the methods of tampering into three basiccategories: in vivo adulteration, in vitro adulteration, and urinesubstitution. In vivo adulteration includes “flushing” and“detoxification” as well as consumption of large volumes of liquid.⁵ Invitro adulteration includes dilution or the urine sample or the additionof masking agents to the urine sample. Most of these processes can bedetected during collection, inspection and analysis of the sample.³ Inorder to ensure that the urine sample is not a substitution, it isrecommended that urine be collected under direct observation.¹ However,direct observation is at times not feasible in some settings.

There is therefore a need for a method of determining if a collectedurine sample from a subject originates from the same subject in a methodthat could increase patient dignity and potentially decrease costs. Itwould be advantageous for this method to be easily implemented andresult in confident assessments.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment, the present invention provides for a method oflabeling urine in a subject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering one or more fluorophores to the subject at a time        prior to,    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject, and    -   detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the        urine sample.

In a further embodiment of the method outlined above, the method furthercomprises screening the urine sample for one or more drugs, illicitsubstances or other substances and/or measuring urine parameters.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, thedrugs are cannabinoids, cocaine, phencyclidine, opiates, amphetamines,oxycodone, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, propoxyphene, methaqualone,3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, anaesthetics, methadone,hallucinogens, inhalants, anabolic steroids, hydrocodone, beta agonists,beta blockers, and glucocorticoids.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, theillicit substances are androgens including testosterone and otheranabolic steroids or precursors, stimulants including caffeine,nutritional supplements including herbs and extracts, alcohol, nicotine,diuretics and masking agents.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, theother substances are growth hormone and growth factors, erythropoietinand creatine.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, theurine parameters are temperature, specific gravity, pH, osmolality,colour viewed with natural light, odour, amount of creatine, amount ofions, amount of trace metals, amount of proteins, amount of vitamins,amount of metabolic molecules and amount of haematopoietic cells.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, themethod comprises a preliminary step of inspection of the subject by anadministrator for one or more signs of substance use, wherein theadministrator determines to proceed with labeling urine in the subject.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, the oneor more fluorophores is non-toxic.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, the oneor more fluorophores is excreted unchanged in the urine sample ormetabolized into one or more second compounds that is one or more secondfluorophores and is excreted in the urine sample.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, the oneor more fluorophores is fluorescein, a derivative or a salt thereof.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, the oneor more fluorophores is fluorescein sodium.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, theamount of each of the one or more fluorophores administered to thesubject is from about 50 to about 100 mg.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, theamount of each of the one or more fluorophores administered to thesubject is about 100 mg.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, theamount of each of the one or more fluorophores administered to thesubject is from about 0.6 to about 1.2 mg/kg body weight of the subject.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, theamount of each of the one or more fluorophores administered to thesubject is about 1.2 mg/kg body weight of the subject.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, theadministering is oral administering.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, thetime prior to miction is from about 5 to about 30 minutes, preferablyabout 20 minutes.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, the oneor more fluorophores is detected in the urine sample with aspectrophotometer, ophthalmoscope equipped with a cobalt blue orequivalent filter, fluorometer, UV light source capable of exciting thefluorophore or any combination thereof.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, the oneor more fluorophores is detected in the urine sample with anophthalmoscope equipped with a cobalt blue or equivalent filter.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, the oneor more fluorophores is dissolved in about 200 to about 500 mL of anaqueous solution prior to administration.

In a further embodiment of the method or methods outlined above, the oneor more fluorophores is dissolved in about 300 mL of an aqueous solutionprior to administration.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides for a method oflabeling urine in a subject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering fluorescein sodium to the subject at a time 10        minutes prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of fluorescein sodium in the urine sample        with an ophthalmoscope equipped with a cobalt blue optical        filter.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

FIG. 1 represents the structure of fluorescein and examples offluorescein derivatives or salts thereof.

FIG. 2 is a representation of the excitation and emission profile offluorescein.

FIG. 3 represents the sensitivity and specificity of detectingfluorescein in a urine sample vs. time.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Described herein are methods for labeling urine in a subject. Alsoprovided are methods of conducting a screening test, for example, butnot limited to a drug, illicit substance or other substance screeningtest. Also provided is a method for testing a urine sample to determineif it originated from a specific subject. It will be appreciated thatthe methods and embodiments described herein are for illustrativepurposes intended for those skilled in the art and are not meant to belimiting in any way. All references to embodiments or examplesthroughout the disclosure should be considered a reference to anillustrative and non-limiting embodiment or an illustrative andnon-limiting example.

According to one embodiment of the present invention, there is provideda method of labeling urine in a subject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering one of more fluorophores to the subject at a time        prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the        urine sample.

In the context of the present invention, by the term “miction” it ismeant urination including elimination, sampling or voiding of urine froma subject voluntarily or otherwise.

The method may further comprise screening the urine for drugs, illicitsubstances or any other substances. It is contemplated that thescreening for these drugs, illicit substances or any other substancesmay involve the detection of the metabolized forms of these compounds aswould be produced in the human body. The detection of the drug, illicitsubstance or other substance in the original form is also contemplated.Determining if the metabolized form of the drug, illicit substance orother substance or of the original forms should be detected would beknown to a person skilled in the art.

The types of drugs that can be screened for in the urine include,without limitation, cannabinoids, cocaine, phencyclidine, opiates,amphetamines, oxycodone, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, propoxyphene,methaqualone, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, anaesthetics,methadone, hallucinogens, inhalants, hydrocodone, beta agonists, betablockers, glucocorticoids, or any other drug that is excreted in theurine. The types of illicit substances that can be screened for in theurine include, without limitation, androgens including testosterone andother anabolic steroids or precursors, stimulants including caffeine,nutritional supplements including herbs and extracts, alcohol, nicotine,diuretics, masking agents or any other illicit substance. Othersubstances include, for example, but are not limited to, growth hormoneand growth factors, erythropoietin, creatine or any other metabolite.

The method may further comprise screening for additional urineparameters, which may provide further data on the genuineness of theurine sample, including, without limitation, temperature, specificgravity, pH, osmolality, colour viewed with natural light, odour, amountof creatine, amount of ions and trace metals, amount of proteins, amountor vitamins, amount of metabolic molecules or amount of haematopoieticcells. Other parameters as are known in the art may also be included.

In a further embodiment, the method comprises a preliminary step ofinspecting the subject by an administrator for one or more signs ofsubstance use. These one or more signs of substance use include, forexample, but not limited to, red eyes, runny nose, injection marks onarms or other areas of the body, sudden change in behaviour, moodswings, irritability, and/or changed sleeping pattern. Other signs ofsubstance use may include, for example, but not limited to, enhancedphysical performance, decreased physical performance, sudden change inappearance, lessening of pain, higher pain tolerance, or increasedaggression. These signs may more readily indicate substance use by thesubject, who may be more likely to replace or adulterate a urine samplein order to avoid detection. Many other signs of substance use may bedetected, which will be apparent to the administrator and/or others. Ifthe administrator detects these signs, the administrator may determineto proceed with labeling the urine in the subject to prevent theproduction of fraudulent urine samples.

It is contemplated that the fluorophore in the present invention isnon-toxic. By “non-toxic” it is meant that the compound will not inducea harmful response to a majority of the population at the administereddose and is generally considered safe for oral consumption and/orintravenous administration.

It is also contemplated in the present invention that the fluorophore isexcreted unchanged in the urine or metabolized into a second knowncompound that is also a fluorophore and excreted in the urine.

In the context of the present invention, detecting the presence of afluorophore in the urine sample would indicate that the urine sampleoriginates from the subject that accepted the administered fluorophore.In an embodiment where the urine is for the purpose of urine screeningtests, a random administration of the fluorophore or a placebo may becontemplated.

Although a subject could obtain the fluorophore to make a labeled urinesample for substitution, the subject would not know if the administeredsample is expected to contain the fluorophore or not (i.e. if thesubject had received the fluorophore or the placebo), particularly incases where the composition comprising the fluorophore cannot be easilydiscerned from the placebo.

In another embodiment, more than one fluorophore can be administered. Ittherefore follows that the urine sample may comprise more than onefluorophore. This embodiment may also be particularly advantageous inthe case of drug screening as administration of a randomized mixture offluorophores increases the difficulty of successful urine adulteration.For example, from a selection of fluorophores A, B and C, eight separatesamples may be prepared containing either an absence, one, two or threefluorophores each:

-   -   combination 1: no fluorophores;    -   combination 2: fluorophore A;    -   combination 3: fluorophore B;    -   combination 4: fluorophore C;    -   combination 5: fluorophores A and B;    -   combination 6: fluorophores A and C;    -   combination 7: fluorophores B and C; and    -   combination 8: fluorophores A, B and C.

There would only be a one in eight chance for a subject to guess theadministered sample and adulterate the urine sample correctly.

In a further embodiment, a mixture of fluorophores can be administeredat different ratios. This may result in the urine comprising thefluorophores at expected ratios. For example, from a selection offluorophores A and B, many combination samples can be prepared. Afteradministration of the sample, the urine sample is expected to comprisethese fluorophores in a particular ratio.

In a further embodiment, it is contemplated that two differentfluorophores may be administered which are known to have differentclearance rates from the body into the urine. Thus, it will beappreciated that the urine sample may comprise a different ratio offluorophores than in the administered sample. This would be expected asthe fluorophores have different metabolic and bioavailability profilesaffecting their excretion rate. The ratio may be known in advance or maybe determined experimentally in a control group and compared to thefluorophore ratio found in the urine sample. This embodiment, inreference to urine drug screening tests, may impart another level ofdifficulty for subjects attempting urine substitution.

In one embodiment, the use of the present invention in the insuranceindustry is contemplated. Occasionally, insurance companies requireurine samples to be produced wherein nicotine and/or proteins isdetected, among other substances. The presence of these substances mayaffect insurance rates. As the collection of the urine sample isunwitnessed, the administration of a fluorophore prior to mictionensures the genuineness of the urine sample.

In a further embodiment, the detection of a fluorophore in the urine maybe useful in genitourinary surgery. The surgeon may be alerted if anorgan of the urinary tract has been breached by the visual appearance ofthe fluorophore during surgery. The fluorophore may be orallyadministered to the patient prior to surgery at a time determined toproduce the most beneficial results or may be administered intravenouslyto the patient during surgery,

Any fluorophore that can be administered and excreted in the urine in areasonable amount of time at a concentration enabling detection and thatremains unchanged in the urine or metabolized into a second fluorophoreis contemplated in the present invention. Without wishing to belimiting, one example of a fluorophore that can be used to label theurine of a subject is fluorescein or derivatives and salts thereof (seeFIG. 1). The ability of fluorescein to fluoresce under a blue lightsource when in high dilution makes this fluorophore an attractive optionfor the purposes of the present invention. Some examples of fluoresceinderivatives are presented in FIG. 1. Examples of fluorescein saltsinclude, but are not limited sodium, potassium, iodide, amine,phosphate, phosphonium, pyridimium, or sulfate salts. These examples aremeant to present a general idea fluorescein modifications and it is notnecessarily suggested that these fluorescein derivatives may be suitablefor use in the present invention.

A representative example of a fluorescein or derivatives and saltthereof is fluorescein sodium salt, depicted in formula (I). Fluoresceinsodium salt, also known as oral fluorescein, is used extensively inhealth care applications, especially in fundus angiography, and isgenerally considered safe even up to a dose of 25 mg/kg of bodyweight.⁶⁻¹⁰

In one embodiment of the present invention, from about 50 mg to about100 mg of the fluorophore is administered to the subject prior tomiction, for example but not limited to 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85,90, 95 or 100 mg. In a further embodiment, about 0.6 to about 1.2 mg ofthe fluorophore/kg body weight of the subject is administered, forexample but not limited to 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 or 1.2 mg/kg body weight.

In a particularly preferred embodiment, the administration route is oraladministration. This can be particularly efficient as an oraladministration route does not require additional equipment such asdisinfection solutions and syringes as well as training of personnel forintravenous administration or the like. However, in certaincircumstances, intravenous administration is also possible.

It will be appreciated that the fluorophores may be in the form of apill, tablet, capsule, liquid, solution, syrup, dispersion, suspension,powder or any other formulation which will enable the delivery of thefluorophore into the body of the subject. The fluorophores may becombined with aqueous solutions, for example, water, coffee, juice orother beverages, or may be combined with food.

The administration of the fluorophore at a certain time prior to mictionis important in order to allow for the fluorophore to pass into theurine. A short duration time after administration but prior to mictionmay result in the fluorophore not passing into the urine while a longduration time may cause the fluorophore in the urine to be too dilutefor detection. It should be understood that the optimal duration timewill be dependent on a variety of factors, for example age, gender,weight, state of health, health of gastrointestinal tract, whether thefluorophore is administered in a fed or fasted state, gastric emptyingrate, interactions with other foods/drugs and/or metabolic differences.In one embodiment of the present invention, the fluorophore isadministered from about 5 to 30 minutes prior to miction. In anotherembodiment, the fluorophore is administered about 20 minutes prior tomiction.

As fluorophores emit fluorescence upon excitation, the detection of thefluorophore in the urine sample can be performed with any device and/ormeans that will result in a positive result (i.e., the presence of thefluorescence). In particular, detection of the fluorophore encompassesexciting the fluorophore at a particular wavelength(s) and detectingand/or measuring the resulting fluorescence emission. Detection alsoinvolves the ability to differentiate the presence of fluorescence frombackground/baseline interference.

An excitation and emission profile for fluorescein is show in FIG. 2.Peak excitation occurs at 494 nm and peak emission occurs at 521 nm. Anymeans of exciting the fluorescein is contemplated in the presentinvention. In one embodiment, a fluorometer is used to detect thefluorescence of fluorescein by exciting fluorescein at a suitablewavelength, for example 488 nm, and detecting the emitted fluorescence.In another embodiment, a opthalmoscope equipped with a cobalt bluefilter is used to visualize fluorescein light emission. In this method,white light is passed through a cobalt blue filter which allowswavelengths of 390 to 410 nm to pass, exciting the fluorescein, andvisually observing the green fluorescence. A cobalt blue filter greatlyenhances viewing fluorescein sodium wherein almost 100% of the absorbedlight is converted to green fluorescent light. In yet anotherembodiment, UV light is used to excite fluorescein. In particular, UVAlight is used, consisting of wavelengths ranging from 320 to 400 nm.

It is one aim of the present invention that an administered dose of thefluorophore will result in a high confidence of assessment. For example,it is contemplated that at a specific dose, close to 100% of urinesamples will be interpreted as having fluorescence. A minimization offalse-negatives is especially desirable as it relates to urine screeningtests since it may be difficult to repeat the procedure.

In an embodiment where the fluorophores are for oral administration, thefluorophores are dissolved in about 100 to about 500 mL of an aqueoussolution prior to administration, for example 100, 150, 200, 250, 300,350, 400, 450 or 500 mL. In a further embodiment, the fluorophores aredissolved in about 300 mL of water prior to administration. In yet afurther embodiment, it is contemplated that the fluorophore may bedissolved in, for example, 100 mL of an aqueous solution, administeredto the subject, followed by the administration of an aqueous solutionwithout the fluorophores, for example, 200-400 mL. For instance, thefluorophore is dissolved in 100 mL of coffee and administered to thesubject. Directly following administration, the subject drinks anadditional 200 mL of water.

In a further embodiment of the present invention there is provided a kitcomprising one or more fluorophores in one or more solutions describedherein.

Based on the disclosure provided above, there is provided a variety ofembodiments which are not meant to be exhaustive or limiting in anymanner. The embodiments described below are contemplated.

In one embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering one or more fluorophores to the subject in an        amount of from about 50 to about 100 mg at a time prior to        miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the        urine sample.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering one or more fluorophores to the subject in an        amount of about 100 mg at a time prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the        urine sample.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering one or more fluorophores to the subject in an        amount of about 0.6 to about 1.2 mg/kg body weight of the        subject at a time prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the        urine sample.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering one or more fluorophores to the subject in an        amount of about 1.2 mg/kg body weight of the subject at a time        prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the        urine sample.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering fluorescein sodium to the subject at a time prior        to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of fluorescein sodium in the urine sample        with an opthalmascope equipped with a cobalt blue optical        filter.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering fluorescein sodium to the subject at a time 20        minutes prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of fluorescein sodium in the urine sample        with an opthalmascope equipped with a cobalt blue optical        filter.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering fluorscein sodium in an amount of about 50 to        about 100 mg to the subject at a time 20 minutes prior to        miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of fluorescein sodium in the urine sample        with an opthalmascope equipped with a cobalt blue optical        filter.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering fluorescein sodium in an amount of about 100 mg to        the subject at a time 20 minutes prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of fluorescein sodium in the urine sample        with an opthalmascope equipped with a cobalt blue optical        filter.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering fluorescein sodium in an amount of about 0.6 to        about 1.2 mg/kg body weight of the subject to the subject at a        time 20 minutes prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of fluorescein sodium in the urine sample        with an opthalmascope equipped with a cobalt blue optical        filter.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   administering fluorscein sodium in an amount of about 1.2 mg/kg        body weight of the subject to the subject at a time 20 minutes        prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of fluorescein sodium in the urine sample        with an opthalmascope equipped with a cobalt blue optical        filter.

In one embodiment, there is provided a method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising:

-   -   inspecting the subject by an administrator for one or more signs        of substance use, and when the one or more signs of abuse are        detected;    -   administering one or more fluorophores to the subject at a time        prior to miction,    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the        urine sample.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of screening urine,the method comprising:

-   -   administering or not administering one or more fluorophores to        the subject at a time prior to miction;    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the        urine sample if the one or more fluorophores is administered to        the subject.

In another embodiment, there is provided a method of screening urine,the method comprising:

-   -   inspecting the subject by an administrator for one or more signs        of substance use, and when the one or more signs of abuse are        detected;    -   administering or not administering one or more fluorophores to        the subject at a time prior to miction,    -   obtaining a urine sample from the subject; and    -   detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the        urine sample if the one or more fluorophores is administered to        the subject.

Example

In a blind study, 50 mg of fluorescein was administered orally to ahealthy male volunteer, followed by 350 mL of tap water. Urine wascollected at 5 minute intervals for a total of 20 minutes. The sampleswere analyzed by one experienced, and one inexperienced observer withcobalt blue light from a standard Welch Allyn ophthalmoscope. Theexperiment was performed seven times, with more than 48 hour intervalsbetween each experiment.

The results are presented in FIG. 3. There was no difference in the rateof detection of the fluorescein between the two observers. Thesensitivity was 0.87 (confidence interval: 0.60-0.97) at 10 minutes androse to 1.0 (confidence interval: 0.73-1.0) at 20 minutes. Thespecificity was 1.0 (confidence interval: 0.59-1.0) constantly.

While this invention has been particularly shown and described withreferences to embodiments thereof, it will be understood by thoseskilled in the art that various changes in from and details may be made.The scope of the claims should not be limited to the illustrativeembodiments, but should be given the broadest interpretation consistentwith the scope and spirit of the invention.

All documents are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

REFERENCES

-   1. Reynolds, L. A. Historical Aspects of Drugs-of-Abuse Testing in    the United States. In Drugs of abuse: body fluid testing, Wong, R.    C.; Tse H. Y., Eds.; Human Press Inc.: New Jersey, 2005, pp 1-10.-   2. Lewis, J. H. Drug detection and its role in law enforcement.    Trends and Issue in Crime and Criminal Justice, 205, 2001, pp 1-6.-   3. Jaffee, W. B., Trucco, E., Levy, S., & Weiss, R. D. Ensuring    validity in urine drug screens and tests; 2006. Manuscript submitted    for publication.-   4. Urine Specimen Collection Handbook for Federal Agency Workplace    Drug Testing Programs, Nov. 1, 2004, Substance Abuse and Mental    Health Services Administration.-   5. Cone, E. J., Lange, R., and Darwin, W. D. In vivo adulteration:    excess fluid ingestion causes false-negative marijuana and cocaine    urine test results. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 1998, 22(6),    460-473.-   6. Watson, A. P., and Rosen, E. S. Oral fluorescein angiography:    reassessment of its relative safety and evaluation of optimum    conditions with use of capsules. British Journal of Ophthalmology    1990, 74(8), 458-461.-   7. Nayak, B. K.; Ghose, S. A method for fundus evaluation in    children with oral fluorescein. British journal of ophthalmology    1987, 71(12), 907-909.-   8. Barteselli, G.; et al. Safety and efficacy of oral fluorescein    angiography in detecting macular edema in comparison with spectral    domain optical coherence tomography. Retina 2013, 33(8), 1574.-   9. Wallace, M. B.; et al. The safety of intravenous fluorescein for    confocal laser endomicroscopy in the gastrointestinal tract.    Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2010, 31, 548-552.-   10. Kwan, A. S. L.; Barry C.; McAllister, F. Constable, I.    Fluorescein angiography and adverse drug reactions revisited: the    Lions Eye experience. Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology 2006,    34, 33-38.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of labeling urine in a subject, themethod comprising: administering one or more fluorophores to the subjectat a time prior to miction; obtaining a urine sample from the subject;and detecting the presence of the one or more fluorophores in the urinesample.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprisesscreening the urine sample for one or more drugs, illicit substances orother substances and/or measuring urine parameters.
 3. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the drugs are cannabinoids, cocaine, phencyclidine,opiates, amphetamines, oxycodone, benzodiazepines, barbiturates,propoxyphene, methaqualone, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine,anaesthetics, methadone, hallucinogens, inhalants, hydrocodone, betaagonists, beta blockers, and glucocorticoids.
 4. The method of claim 2,wherein the illicit substances are androgens including testosterone andother anabolic steroids or precursors, stimulants including caffeine,nutritional supplements including herbs and extracts, alcohol, nicotine,diuretics and masking agents.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein theother substances are growth hormone and growth factors, erythropoietinand creatine.
 6. The method of claim 2, wherein the urine parameters aretemperature, specific gravity, pH, osmolality, colour viewed withnatural light, odour, amount of creatine, amount of ions, amount oftrace metals, amount of proteins, amount of vitamins, amount ofmetabolic molecules and amount of haematopoietic cells.
 7. The method ofany one of claims 1 to 6, wherein the method comprises a preliminarystep of inspection of the subject by an administrator for one or moresigns of substance abuse, wherein the administrator determines toproceed with labeling urine in the subject.
 8. The method of any one ofclaims 1 to 7, wherein the one or more fluorophores is non-toxic.
 9. Themethod of any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the one or more fluorophoresis excreted unchanged in the urine sample or metabolized into one ormore second compounds that is one or more second fluorophores and isexcreted in the urine sample.
 10. The method of any one of claims 1 to9, wherein the one or more fluorophores is fluorescein, a derivative ora salt thereof.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the one or morefluorophores is fluorescein sodium.
 12. The method of any one of claims1 to 11, wherein the amount of each of the one or more fluorophoresadministered to the subject is from about 50 to about 100 mg.
 13. Themethod of claim 12, wherein the amount of each of the one or morefluorophores administered to the subject is about 100 mg.
 14. The methodof any one of claims 1 to 13, wherein the amount of each of the one ormore fluorophores administered to the subject is from about 0.6 to about1.2 mg/kg body weight of the subject.
 15. The method of claim 14,wherein the amount of each of the one or more fluorophores administeredto the subject is about 1.2 mg/kg body weight of the subject.
 16. Themethod of any one of claims 1 to 15, wherein the administering is oraladministering.
 17. The method of any one of claims 1 to 16, wherein thetime prior to miction is from about 5 to about 30 minutes.
 18. Themethod of claim 17, wherein the time prior to miction is about 20minutes.
 19. The method of any one of claims 1 to 18, wherein the one ormore fluorophores is detected in the urine sample with aspectrophotometer, ophthalmoscope equipped with a cobalt blue orequivalent filter, fluorometer, UV light source capable of exciting thefluorophore or any combination thereof.
 20. The method of claim 19,wherein the one or more fluorophores is detected in the urine samplewith an ophthalmoscope equipped with a cobalt blue or equivalent filter.21. The method of any one of claims 1 to 20, wherein the one or morefluorophores is dissolved in about 200 to about 500 mL of an aqueoussolution prior to administration.
 22. The method of claim 21, whereinthe one or more fluorophores is dissolved in about 300 mL of an aqueoussolution prior to administration.
 23. A method of labeling urine in asubject, the method comprising: administering fluorescein sodium to thesubject at a time 20 minutes prior to miction; obtaining a urine samplefrom the subject; and detecting the presence of fluorescein sodium inthe urine sample with an opthalmascope equipped with a cobalt blueoptical filter.